This photograph of the quantum-computing device shows the nine superconducting qubits arranged in a row. The qubits interact with their nearest neighbours to detect and correct errors. (Courtesy: Julian Kelly)
Topics: Modern Physics, Nanotechnology, Quantum Computer, Quantum Mechanics
A system of nine quantum bits (qubits) that is robust to errors that would normally destroy a quantum computation has been created by researchers at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) and Google. The device relies on a quantum error-correction protocol, which the team says could be deployed in practical quantum computers of the future.
In principle, powerful quantum computers can be built from a collection of qubits. For a qubit based on an electron, for example, these states would be "spin up" and "spin down", with one state representing a logical "1" and the other "0". Each qubit can be in a superposition of two quantum states at the same time and N qubits could be quantum-mechanically entangled to represent 2N values simultaneously. This would lead to the parallel processing of information on a massive scale not possible with conventional computers.
However, quantum computers are extremely fragile, and a computation can be easily destroyed by "bit errors" that occur when external noise in the environment affects the values of the qubits. While it is proving very difficult to create practical qubits that are robust enough to eliminate such errors, an alternative approach is to accept that errors will occur and to try to correct for them as the quantum calculation progresses.
Now, UCSB's John Martinis and colleagues have taken an important step forward by demonstrating repetitive error correction in an integrated quantum device that consists of nine superconducting qubits. Each qubit is a small circuit consisting of a capacitor and a Josephson junction, and is made from an aluminium film evaporated onto a sapphire substrate. The qubit can be thought of as an artificial atom with information stored in its quantum states.
And, one so familiar and deep cover, she was literally "hidden in plain sight":
From discovering pulsars to correcting the optics of the fuzzy Hubble Space Telescope, here are 17 stories of women who made undeniably vital contributions to astronomy and physics.
Topics: Aeronautical Engineering, Flight, Green Energy, Green Tech, Solar Power
A pioneering flight around the world will use nothing but sunshine for fuel. In the dusty peach dawn of a desert day, the Solar Impulse 2 airplane took flight at 11:12 PM Eastern time on March 8 from Abu Dhabi on the first leg of a bid to fly around the world exclusively powered by electricity generated from sunlight.
The primary structural component is carbon-fiber sheets that weigh just 25 grams per square meter, or roughly three times lighter than a similar sized piece of paper. That carbon fiber is used sparingly in structural spots where forces push on the airplane. But the interior of the wings, the fuselage and other areas are empty to save even that tiny bit of weight, co-pilot Bertrand Piccard explained to Scientific American.
Atop those wings, as well as the body and even the tail of the plane, are 17,248 solar cells as thin as a human hair that generate electricity as the plane flies, some of which is stored in four lithium polymer batteries. Those batteries take over powering the plane’s four electric motors at night, which spin the two propellers under each wing. All told the plane weighs 2,300 kilograms and the four batteries are the heaviest passengers, weighing in at 633 kilograms. Making the plane required 12 years of calculations, computer simulations, building and testing, according to Piccard, and some $140 million.
An admitted repeat, but I didn't want to just list her as a mere name during Women's History Month. I am grateful for her and subsequent research by Dr. Blackburn's regarding telomere length and aging in African American men.
Topics: Biology, Genetics, Nobel Prize, Research, STEM, Women in Science
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2009
Elizabeth H. Blackburn, Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak "for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase".
This year's Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to three scientists who have solved a major problem in biology: how the chromosomes can be copied in a complete way during cell divisions and how they are protected against degradation. The Nobel Laureates have shown that the solution is to be found in the ends of the chromosomes – the telomeres – and in an enzyme that forms them – telomerase.
The long, thread-like DNA molecules that carry our genes are packed into chromosomes, the telomeres being the caps on their ends. Elizabeth Blackburn and Jack Szostak discovered that a unique DNA sequence in the telomeres protects the chromosomes from degradation. Carol Greider and Elizabeth Blackburn identified telomerase, the enzyme that makes telomere DNA. These discoveries explained how the ends of the chromosomes are protected by the telomeres and that they are built by telomerase.
If the telomeres are shortened, cells age. Conversely, if telomerase activity is high, telomere length is maintained, and cellular senescence is delayed. This is the case in cancer cells, which can be considered to have eternal life. Certain inherited diseases, in contrast, are characterized by a defective telomerase, resulting in damaged cells. The award of the Nobel Prize recognizes the discovery of a fundamental mechanism in the cell, a discovery that has stimulated the development of new therapeutic strategies.
Topics: Bias, Diversity in Science, Education, STEM, Women in Science
This is a re-post from 2012 whose title I didn't quite explain: "the limit as it approaches" is a term in Calculus - helped to co-develop by Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz to define The Derivative; Leibniz's impact was Integration. The point of the article in Physics Today I think is still three years hence quite relevant, as well as PT's own Calculus social reference.
PHYSICS TODAY:Of all the sciences in the US, physics continues to have the lowest representation of women. Currently, women earn just 21% of bachelor’s degrees and 17% of PhDs in the field. Discourse about women in physics often centers on representation, and the unspoken assumption seems to be that if the representation of women were to increase to some higher level, all would be well. However, the focus on representation obscures important issues and ignores the day-to-day experiences of women physicists.
In fact, women physicists could be the majority in some hypothetical future yet still in their careers experience problems that stem from often unconscious bias. After all, science, and especially physical science, is seen by many cultures as a primarily male domain. But do women actually experience problems in their day-to-day work as physicists? Do they have equal access to opportunities and resources? If not, how does that inequity affect their careers? If harmful, sex-based differences of access exist, then those of us who care about the situation of women in physics need to come up with a solution that encompasses more than just increasing female representation.
Topics: Biology, Genetics, Nobel Prize, Research, STEM, Women in Science
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2009
Elizabeth H. Blackburn, Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak "for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase".
This year's Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to three scientists who have solved a major problem in biology: how the chromosomes can be copied in a complete way during cell divisions and how they are protected against degradation. The Nobel Laureates have shown that the solution is to be found in the ends of the chromosomes – the telomeres – and in an enzyme that forms them – telomerase.
The long, thread-like DNA molecules that carry our genes are packed into chromosomes, the telomeres being the caps on their ends. Elizabeth Blackburn and Jack Szostak discovered that a unique DNA sequence in the telomeres protects the chromosomes from degradation. Carol Greider and Elizabeth Blackburn identified telomerase, the enzyme that makes telomere DNA. These discoveries explained how the ends of the chromosomes are protected by the telomeres and that they are built by telomerase.
If the telomeres are shortened, cells age. Conversely, if telomerase activity is high, telomere length is maintained, and cellular senescence is delayed. This is the case in cancer cells, which can be considered to have eternal life. Certain inherited diseases, in contrast, are characterized by a defective telomerase, resulting in damaged cells. The award of the Nobel Prize recognizes the discovery of a fundamental mechanism in the cell, a discovery that has stimulated the development of new therapeutic strategies.
Dicebat Bernardus Carnotensis nos esse quasi nanos gigantium humeris insidentes, ut possimus plura eis et remotiora videre, non utique proprii visus acumine, aut eminentia corporis, sed quia in altum subvehimur et extollimur magnitudine gigantea.
Translation: Bernard of Chartres used to say that we were like dwarfs seated on the shoulders of giants. If we see more and further than they, it is not due to our own clear eyes or tall bodies, but because we are raised on high and upborne by their gigantic bigness. John of Salisbury, Wikiquote
Topics: Bloody Sunday, Civil Rights, Soldier, Voting Rights, Women's Rights
I knew I wanted to talk about this hero on the 50th anniversary of Bloody Sunday. The president will speak today in Alabama, and I would presume some part of his commentary will mention her particular shoulders (like my sister's) that stood up for one like me when I was just learning to walk. Going backwards, as I've stated, violates causality and the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics. It is better to go forward, together, lifted on shoulders that pushed us all here. She and many others, made our foray on astronautics at NASA; education and engineering; sports and politics up to and now inclusive of the presidency possible. The conditions were not as ubiquitous nor taken for granted as they are today. Thus, we have a generation that believes in magic; that neglecting the sacrifices of the past will have no impact on the present; that their rights taken for granted will always be there if they don't act upon them. There wouldn't be an effort at Voter ID for a non-problem, if your voice made no difference; had no impact.
Civil rights activist Amelia Boynton helped Martin Luther King Jr. plan the Selma to Montgomery March on Bloody Sunday, which led to the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Amelia Boynton was born on August 18, 1911, in Savannah, Georgia. Her early activism included holding black voter registration drives in Selma, Alabama, from the 1930s through the '50s. In 1964, she became both the first African-American woman and the first female Democratic candidate to run for a seat in Congress from Alabama. The following year, she marched on Bloody Sunday. In 1990, Boynton won the Martin Luther King Jr. Medal of Freedom. Today, she tours on behalf of the Schiller Institute.
Also in 1964, Boynton and fellow civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr. teamed up toward their common goals. At the time, Boynton figured largely as an activist in Selma. Still dedicated to securing suffrage for African Americans, she asked Dr. King and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to come to Selma and help promote the cause. King eagerly accepted. Soon after, he and the SCLC set up their headquarters at Boynton's Selma home. There, they planned the Selma to Montgomery March of March 7, 1965.
Some 600 protesters arrived to participate in the event, which would come to be known as "Bloody Sunday." On the Edmund Pettus Bridge, over the Alabama River in Selma, marchers were attacked by policemen with tear gas and billy clubs. Seventeen protesters were sent to the hospital, including Boynton, who had been beaten unconscious. A newspaper photo of Boynton lying bloody and beaten drew national attention to the cause. Bloody Sunday prompted President Lyndon B. Johnson to sign the Voting Rights Act on August 6, 1965, with Boynton attending as the landmark event's guest of honor.
"For innovative experiments that elucidate the electronic interactions and correlations in low-dimensional systems, in particular the use of local gates and tunnel probes to control and measure the electronic states in carbon nanotubes and graphene."
Additional note: The first photograph of a Maria Goeppert Mayor Prize recipient seems to be in 1996 with Dr. Majorie Ann Olmstead, most likely made a part of the site as society got comfortable with the Internet, advances in tools and what could be posted. The prize has been awarded by APS since 1986: "To recognize and enhance outstanding achievement by a woman physicist in the early years of her career, and to provide opportunities for her to present these achievements to others through public lectures in the spirit of Maria Goeppert Mayer." Dr. Mason seems to be - at first brush of the site - the first African American woman awarded this honor.
Topics: Diversity, Nobel Prize, Nuclear Physics, Women in Science
Born: 28 June 1906, Kattowitz (now Katowice), Germany (now Poland)
Died: 20 February 1972, San Diego, CA, USA
Affiliation at the time of the award: University of California, La Jolla, CA, USA
Prize motivation: "for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure"
Maria Goeppert Mayer was born on June 28, 1906, in Kattowitz, Upper Silesia, then Germany, the only child of Friedrich Goeppert and his wife Maria, nee Wolff. On her father's side, she is the seventh straight generation of university professors.
She went to private and public schools in Göttingen and had the great fortune to have very good teachers. It somehow was never discussed, but taken for granted by her parents as well as by herself that she would go to the University. Yet, at that time it was not trivially easy for a woman to do so. In Göttingen there was only a privately endowed school which prepared girls for the "abitur", the entrance examination for the university. This school closed its doors during the inflation, but the teachers continued to give instructions to the pupils. Maria Goeppert finally took the abitur examination in Hannover, in 1924, being examined by teachers she had never seen in her life.
To recognize and enhance outstanding achievement by a woman physicist in the early years of her career, and to provide opportunities for her to present these achievements to others through public lectures in the spirit of Maria Goeppert Mayer. The award consists of $2,500 plus a $4,000 travel allowance to provide opportunities for the recipient to give lectures in her field of physics at four institutions and at the meeting of the Society at which the award is bestowed and a certificate citing the contributions made by the recipient. The award will be presented annually.
Not sure where she is in the process, but hopefully she's close to completion if not already a PhD. There is no reason at all that there aren't more women in STEM fields except for bias and discouragement along their matriculation K-12 and post secondary. See last month's post: STEM and Other Biases. There are certain things we should discourage, as in our current obsession with living the lives of "reality TV stars," and encourage more of this. Otherwise, as I said in the post, we're shooting ourselves collectively in the foot, and wondering how the hole got there!
Image Source: Nobel Prize - Biographical (link below)
Topics: Chemistry, Diversity in Science, Nobel Prize, STEM, Women in Science
Synopsis
Born Maria Sklodowska on November 7, 1867, in Warsaw, Poland, Marie Curie became the first woman to win a Nobel Prize and the only woman to win the award in two different fields (physics and chemistry). Curie's efforts, with her husband Pierre Curie, led to the discovery of polonium and radium and, after Pierre's death, the development of X-rays. She died on July 4, 1934.
Early Life
Maria Sklodowska, better known as Marie Curie, was born in Warsaw in modern-day Poland on November 7, 1867. Her parents were both teachers, and she was the youngest of five children. As a child Curie took after her father, Ladislas, a math and physics instructor. She had a bright and curious mind and excelled at school. But tragedy struck early, and when she was only 11, Curie lost her mother, Bronsitwa, to tuberculosis.
A top student in her secondary school, Curie could not attend the men-only University of Warsaw. She instead continued her education in Warsaw's "floating university," a set of underground, informal classes held in secret. Both Curie and her sister Bronya dreamed of going abroad to earn an official degree, but they lacked the financial resources to pay for more schooling. Undeterred, Curie worked out a deal with her sister. She would work to support Bronya while she was in school and Bronya would return the favor after she completed her studies. [1]
Topics: Diversity, Diversity in Science, Nanotechnology, Women in Science
I believe her title these days is Dr. Mary Graham. If we want more women in STEM fields, this needs to be encouraged in the K-12 levels and post secondary, not when our collective backs are against the wall as a nation. A quote from "Capital in the 21st Century," Thomas Piketty:
"Over a long period of time, the main force in favor of greater equality has been the diffusion of knowledge and skills."
Topics: #BlackLivesMatter, Denouement, Diversity, Diversity in Science, Women in Science
...or, women for that matter!
To the point: it is quite obvious by expectation, (some) low educator motivation that many of us are subtly "herded" into what was once challenged vocations - sports, for example - and away from science, technology, engineering and mathematics fields. Such puts one in the position to literally "lift themselves [by their own academic] bootstraps" out of poverty, into prosperity, self-worth, and yes: power. "Knowledge IS power," and thus you are not encouraged to take Advanced Placement classes - though anyone can request them - you're stressed out over ACT/SAT/Standardized ________ to graduate from high school. Dr. Lani Guinier's article should be a breath of fresh air and an eye-opener. Such hurdles can be prepared for, and overcome (links below).
Personal note: I have worked in the semiconductor industry since 1989. In 1974, my middle school science teacher - upon my asking him a question on linear expansion - called me a "dummy." My parents asked him to explain himself, which he did in sweaty apology in front of the principal to save his job. In 1979, my high school counselor was pretty adamant that I should "graduate early" and go into the military; that I did not have the academic preparation to major in engineering in college, as it seems she advised most of my African American classmates (only). I visited my high school in 1983 a college AFROTC junior and an alumni Air Force JROTC graduate. I had been a cadet colonel and Brigade Commander of the Winston-Salem/Forsyth County school district, a position in my high school freshman year in 1976, the BC then said: "your kind will never get to this rank!" (I was also personally threatened by the Klan via passed crude letter: first, for "getting to the rank," then with showing up for the citywide Brigade Review parade, my last function as cadet commander. This was of considerable concern as I wasn't too far in time or mileage from their infamous shootout in Greensboro.) Upon seeing her, I reminded my counselor of our conversation: that she suggested I graduate early; that I wasn't prepared to be an engineering student. I told her I was a in my junior year in Engineering Physics at North Carolina A&T State University, and that I was going to be a commissioned officer. She quickly found something else to do, and like the Neanderthal my freshman year, found herself quite wrong and at a loss for words. How many have been discouraged by words of ignorant and unqualified judges to jettison their dreams? Don't let ANYONE steal your dreams from you.
I have spoken hopefully, to the young and given them pride, a sense of history and accomplishment. I have hopefully spoken to their appreciation of diversity, as many have friends outside of their culture without the overt impediments of previous generations (we could all follow your example).
There is much more to do in astronautics, astrophysics, architectural and civil engineering, computer science, electrical engineering, environmental engineering, industrial engineering energy independence, food consumption, medicine, ophthalmology, physics, robotics and nanotechnology. We need your minds; we need your brilliance, we need your energy: we need your confidence. Think of the barriers you've seen over the month surmounted during times when we couldn't even drink at a decent drinking fountain, or voting could get you killed. Look at the archives of previous February postings. Think of your own recent history: Trayvon Martin; Jordan Davis; Renisha McBride; Eric Garner; Michael Brown. Marching and now, posting to social media is a kind of activism that temporarily makes you feel good: the other is to tackle the books. As Richard Feynman and his fellow students did, quiz one other on your understanding of all your subjects, science and math definitely. "Outsourcing" should be a last resort in a global economy, and you don't want to make it easy to do so by not being prepared to compete.
Register to vote when you turn 18, vote in midterm and presidential elections and don't let anyone stand in the way of your well-fought for, blood-spilled for right of citizenship, or tell you "it's not worth it"; "it doesn't matter"; "the election is already decided." Active democracies should have elections decided by mere hundreds of votes in close elections; elected officials should not be cowed by 5:1 lobbyists with wheelbarrows of cash, or violent mobs with torches and pitchforks, but with voter registration cards constituents are willing to use to hold them accountable. It stops mattering when you allow the moneyed few to dictate the direction of the nation, and the dreams of the many: on a personal level, a lot "dreams deferred"* may sadly, (indefinitely) be yours and this nation's. Spend less time on social media and million player games and master science, technology, engineering, mathematics and above all: critical thinking to question those in authority. You can do it! This country needs you: the WORLD needs you...to straighten your backs, and step out into the light.
Ending the month how we began it:
"Change does not roll in on the wheels of inevitability, but comes through continuous struggle. And so we must straighten our backs and work for our freedom. A man can't ride you unless your back is bent."
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr - and, a seldom-quoted riff (embed) below...
*What happens to a dream differed?
Does it dry up like a raisin in the sun?
Or, fester like a sore, and then run?
Does it stink like rotted meat,
Or crust and sugar over like a syrupy sweet?
Maybe it just sags like a heavy load...
...or does it explode? Langston Hughes
Don't explode: ascend, and give light to your dreams!
Now, we have web sites that celebrate black nerds. There's even a word for it now: blerds. Not so in the 60's. You were then just weird, oddball, outcast, different: the "other."
Despite the demonstrably miraculous technologies your fictional century had mastered, there was still an obvious prejudice even between space faring species Gene Roddenberry and the scriptwriters couldn't ignore. Part of the attraction and charm of Star Trek (especially for Dr. King) is we might just learn to get along with one another and survive as a species; that we might tolerate differences especially when it is solidly in our faces with bowled haircut; arched eyebrows; pointed ears and green-tinged skin. You played a half-human: Vulcan and Earth coursed in your copper veins; your character balanced and respected two cultures because of the parents Spock loved (though logic wouldn't let him admit it). You were "diversity" before the word was re-purposed in the lexicon.
You will be lauded, celebrated and missed by Star Trek fans worldwide. I know the totality of your body of work is far beyond the franchise as poet, director; writer, song writer and more. It's not uncommon nor unfair for actors to not wish to be typecast, i.e. known for only one role. However sir, this role was significant to straightening the backs of many: you were the "other," a man artistically crafted between two worlds to struggle with what than meant, and we struggled with you. You allowed those of us that felt "different" to feel that it's OK to be that way. That our nerd culture was beyond Melanin or for many, sexual orientation: all our values, our histories, ourselves have purpose and meaning for our brief time as blades of grass in the light. We thoroughly enjoyed your time and your talents in it with all of us.
As you attain escape velocity, and warp to meet Gene, Majel Barrett and James Doohan, know that "I have been, and will always be"...your fan.
To support wireless communications at higher frequencies offering more channel capacity, NIST engineer Kate Remley led development of this new 94 gigahertz calibrated signal source for testing receivers and other devices. Credit: NIST
Topics: Electrical Engineering, 5G Cellular, Wireless Technology, Women in Science
Smartphones and tablets are everywhere, which is great for communications but a growing burden on wireless channels. Forecasted huge increases in mobile data traffic call for exponentially more channel capacity. Boosting bandwidth and capacity could speed downloads, improve service quality, and enable new applications like the Internet of Things connecting a multitude of devices.
To help solve the wireless crowding conundrum and support the next generation of mobile technology—5G cellular—researchers at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) are developing measurement tools for channels that are new for mobile communications and that could offer more than 1,000 times the bandwidth of today’s cell phone systems.
Like pioneers who found land by going west, telecom researchers can find open spectrum by going up—to higher frequencies. Mobile devices such as cell phones, consumer WiFi devices and public safety radios mostly operate below 3 gigahertz (GHz) (see infographic). But some devices are starting to use fast silicon-germanium radio chips operating at millimeter (mm) wavelengths above 10 GHz. Researchers at NIST and elsewhere are eyeing channels up to 100 GHz and even beyond.
Topics: Dark Matter, Diaspora, Science Fiction, Speculative Fiction, Women in Science and Speculative Fiction
Song of Blood & Stone: Earthsinger Chronicles Book 1 By Leslye Penelope
Orphaned and alone, Jasminda is an outcast in her homeland of Elsira, where she is feared for both the shade of her skin and her magical abilities. When ruthless soldiers seek refuge in her isolated cabin, they bring with them a captive – an injured spy who steals her heart.
Dark matter: the nonluminous matter, not yet detected, that nonetheless has detectable gravitational effects on the universe.
Dark matter: the Afro-American presence and influences unseen or unacknowledged by Euro-American culture.
Dark Matter: the first anthology to illuminate the presence and influence of black writers in speculative fiction, with 25 stories, three novel excerpts, and five essays.
* * * * *
Though Black women's literature spans every genre imaginable, the visibility of Black women in speculative fiction is often low. These women create work that not only speaks to their experiences but imagines new worlds and possibilities. Their stories take us on journeys. And while though the work may offer temporary moments of escape, when we return we're better able to interpret our own place in the world. If you're interested in taking the trip, you'll want to check out these Black women science fiction writers.For Harriet
Hughes and Damas #1953511 Photographs and Prints Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, The New York Public Library. The writers of the Harlem Renaissance, such as Langston Hughes and Claude McKay, who lived in France in order to escape American racism and segregation, influenced the founders of the Négritude movement. Many years later, Léon-Gontran Damas, cofounder of Négritude, and Langston Hughes share a moment. Image 1 of 17
Topics: African Heritage, Civil Rights, Négritude Movement, Star Trek
Bertrade Ngo-Ngijol Banoum –Lehman College
Négritude is a cultural movement launched in 1930s Paris by French-speaking black graduate students from France's colonies in Africa and the Caribbean territories. These black intellectuals converged around issues of race identity and black internationalist initiatives to combat French imperialism. They found solidarity in their common ideal of affirming pride in their shared black identity and African heritage, and reclaiming African self-determination, self–reliance, and self–respect. The Négritude movement signaled an awakening of race consciousness for blacks in Africa and the African Diaspora. This new race consciousness, rooted in a (re)discovery of the authentic self, sparked a collective condemnation of Western domination, anti-black racism, enslavement, and colonization of black people. It sought to dispel denigrating myths and stereotypes linked to black people, by acknowledging their culture, history, and achievements, as well as reclaiming their contributions to the world and restoring their rightful place within the global community.
Dr. Stephen Hawking of Cambridge University alongside illustrations of a black hole and an event horizon with Hawking Radiation. He continues to engage his grey matter to uncover the secrets of the Universe while others attempt to confirm his existing theories. Credit: Photo: BBC, Illus.: T.Reyes
Topics: Big Bang, Black Holes, Einstein, DSR, Gravity, Spacetime, Special Relativity
We've come a long way in 13.8 billion years; but despite our impressively extensive understanding of the Universe, there are still a few strings left untied. For one, there is the oft-cited disconnect between general relativity, the physics of the very large, and quantum mechanics, the physics of the very small. Then there is problematic fate of a particle's intrinsic information after it falls into a black hole. Now, a new interpretation of fundamental physics attempts to solve both of these conundrums by making a daring claim: at certain scales, space and time simply do not exist.
Let's start with something that is not in question. Thanks to Einstein's theory of special relativity, we can all agree that the speed of light is constant for all observers. We can also agree that, if you're not a photon, approaching light speed comes with some pretty funky rules – namely, anyone watching you will see your length compress and your watch slow down.
But the slowing of time also occurs near gravitationally potent objects, which are described by general relativity. So if you happen to be sight-seeing in the center of the Milky Way and you make the regrettable decision to get too close to our supermassive black hole's event horizon (more sinisterly known as its point-of-no-return), anyone observing you will also see your watch slow down. In fact, he or she will witness your motion toward the event horizon slow dramatically over an infinite amount of time; that is, from your now-traumatized friend's perspective, you never actually cross the event horizon. You, however, will feel no difference in the progression of time as you fall past this invisible barrier, soon to be spaghettified by the black hole's immense gravity.
So, who is "correct"? Relativity dictates that each observer's point of view is equally valid; but in this situation, you can't both be right. Do you face your demise in the heart of a black hole, or don't you? (Note: This isn't strictly a paradox, but intuitively, it feels a little sticky.)
And there is an additional, bigger problem. A black hole's event horizon is thought to give rise to Hawking radiation, a kind of escaping energy that will eventually lead to both the evaporation of the black hole and the destruction of all of the matter and energy that was once held inside of it. This concept has black hole physicists scratching their heads. Because according to the laws of physics, all of the intrinsic information about a particle or system (namely, the quantum wavefunction) must be conserved. It cannot just disappear.
Why all of these bizarre paradoxes? Because black holes exist in the nebulous space where a singularity meets general relativity – fertile, yet untapped ground for the elusive theory of everything.
Enter two interesting, yet controversial concepts: doubly special relativity and gravity's rainbow.
Topics: Diaspora, Space Exploration, Speculative Fiction
Conception, Volume Two of the Darkside Trilogy by William Hayashi
Conception, Volume Two of the Darkside Trilogy tells the story of the extraordinary people who built their lunar secret habitat (chronicled in Discovery: Volume 1 of the Darkside Trilogy) and how they came together. These people, exclusively Black, conceive of, design and construct technological marvels that the collective scientific minds of the entire world cannot duplicate. And how, one might ask, did they manage to do what no one had ever done before, over and over and over again in so many disciplines, and in so many ways?
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